Magnesiothermic synthesis of sulfur-doped graphene as an efficient metal-free electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction

W2045732482 · 수집 2026-10-04 18:12:19

T10030 Electrocatalysts for Energy Conversion

CoT 라벨링

라벨링 전

PDF 파일

자동 다운로드한 PDF PDF 보기

기본 정보

DOI 제목 발행년도 저널 URL 페이지 열기 PDF URL PDF 열기 발행기관 피인용수 라이선스

추가 정보 초록

Efficient metal-free electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) are highly expected in future low-cost energy systems. We have successfully prepared crumpled, sheet-like, sulfur-doped graphene by magnesiothermic reduction of easily available, low-cost, nontoxic CO2 (in the form of Na2CO3) and Na2SO4 as the carbon and sulfur sources, respectively. At high temperature, Mg can reduce not only carbon in the oxidation state of +4 in CO3(2-) to form graphene, but also sulfur in SO4(2-) from its highest (+6) to lowest valence which was hybridized into the carbon sp(2) framework. Various characterization results show that sulfur-doped graphene with only few layers has an appropriate sulfur content, hierarchically robust porous structure, large surface area/pore volume, and highly graphitized textures. The S-doped graphene samples exhibit not only a high activity for ORR with a four-electron pathway, but also superior durability and tolerance to MeOH crossover to 40% Pt/C. This is mainly ascribed to the combination of sulfur-related active sites and hierarchical porous textures, facilitating fast diffusion of oxygen molecules and electrolyte to catalytic sites and release of products from the sites.

본문

### OPEN

SUBJECT AREAS:

ELECTROCATALYSIS

GRAPHENE

Received
25 November 2014

Accepted
25 February 2015

Published
20 March 2015

Correspondence and

requests for materials

should be addressed to

[J.W. (jiacheng.wang@](mailto:jiacheng.wang@mail.sic.ac.cn)

[mail.sic.ac.cn) or Q.L.](mailto:jiacheng.wang@mail.sic.ac.cn)

[(qianliu@sunm.shcnc.](mailto:qianliu@sunm.shcnc.ac.cn)

[ac.cn)](mailto:qianliu@sunm.shcnc.ac.cn)

## Magnesiothermic synthesis of sulfur-doped graphene as an efficient metal-free electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction

Jiacheng Wang 1,2,3, Ruguang Ma 1,2,3, Zhenzhen Zhou 1,2,3, Guanghui Liu 1,2,3 & Qian Liu 1,2,3

1State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, P. R. China, 2 Innovation Center for Inorganic Materials Genomic Science, Shanghai
Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, P. R. China, 3 Shanghai Institute of Materials Genome,
Shanghai, P. R. China.

oxidation state of 14 in CO322 to form graphene, but also sulfur in SO422 from its highest (16) to lowest

valence which was hybridized into the carbon sp 2 framework. Various characterization results show that
sulfur-doped graphene with only few layers has an appropriate sulfur content, hierarchically robust porous
structure, large surface area/pore volume, and highly graphitized textures. The S-doped graphene samples
exhibit not only a high activity for ORR with a four-electron pathway, but also superior durability and
tolerance to MeOH crossover to 40% Pt/C. This is mainly ascribed to the combination of sulfur-related
active sites and hierarchical porous textures, facilitating fast diffusion of oxygen molecules and electrolyte to
catalytic sites and release of products from the sites.

ecause of the predicted detrimental effects (e.g., global climate warming) of CO2 emission, there is growing
interest in designing novel materials and technologies for carbon capture and storage, as well as chemical
fixation of CO2 in constructing a future low-carbon global economy. CO2 emitted from fuel-fired power
# B
plant is captured by a well-developed chemical absorption process using aqueous amine-ammonia solutions in
industry 1 and physisorption between solid adsorbents (e.g. zeolites 2, mesoporous silicas 3, activated carbons 4–6,
metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) 7, etc) and CO2 molecules 8 in laboratory research.

Except for CO2 capture and storage, chemical utilization of CO2 is another major concern with respect to the
reduction of CO2 emission into the atmosphere. At the same time, it can exploit CO2 as a non-toxic, economical,
environmentally friendly, and abundant carbon feedstock for the synthesis of useful chemical compounds. It has
been reported that CO2 could be used as raw materials to produce various valuable compounds including organic
carbonates 9, urea derivatives 10, formic acid 11, methanol 11,12, carbon monoxide 13, and even diamond 14, etc 15, in the
presence of catalyst/reaction media. Especially, CO2 could also be reduced into the few-layer graphene nanostructure with different morphologies 16,17 . The dye sensitized solar cell with CO2-derived graphene as a counter
electrode shows a high energy conversion efficiency of 8.1%, 10 times higher than that (0.7%) of a cell with the
conventional graphene via chemical exfoliation of graphite 17 . Pure graphene with 3D honeycomb-like microstructure was prepared by the reaction of carbon monoxide and lithium oxide, reported by Hu and his coworkers 18 . Herein, we describe a one-pot magnesiothermic reduction strategy to transform CO2 (in the form of
Na2CO3) in the presence of Na2SO4 as an inorganic sulfur source to graphitized, wrinkled, sulfur-doped graphene
with only few layers.

Since the seminal work of Geim and co-workers on the preparation of single layer graphene (sp 2 -hybridized
carbon) 19, immense excitement has ensued, with graphene and modified graphene structures being shown to have
notable and potentially exploitable electronic 18,19, optical 20, catalytic 21,22, physical properties 23,24,, and others 25,26 .
Both theoretical and experimental studies have shown that the doping of heteroatoms (e.g. nitrogen (N, electro

amount of exhaust waste. It is, however, yet a big challenge to directly
generate S-doped graphene from easily available, low-cost, nontoxic
Na2CO3 and Na2SO4 inorganic oxide salts as the C and S sources,
respectively.

Herein, we have employed a one-step magnesiothermic reduction
strategy to transform greenhouse gas CO2 (in the form of Na2CO3) in
the presence of small amount of Na2SO4 as an inorganic S source to
form S-doped graphene, as shown in Figure 1. At high temperatures,
Mg metal could reduce carbon in the oxidation state of 14 in CO322

Mg metal could reduce carbon in the oxidation state of 14 in CO322

to form black graphene products. At the same time, the SO422 ions

could supply S atoms to build C-S sp 2 bonds integrated into the
graphene lattice; S in its highest oxidation state of 16 in SO422 is

Figure 1 | The schematic illustration implying the production of S-doped
graphene by magnesiothermic reduction of CO322 in the presence of

graphene by magnesiothermic reduction of CO322 in the presence of

SO422 in an Ar flow.

22 in an Ar flow.

negativity: 3.04), phosphorus (P, electronegativity: 2.19), sulfur (S,
electronegativity: 2.58), boron (B, electronegativity: 2.04), etc) with
distinct electronegativity with respect to carbon atoms (electronegativity: 2.55) into sp 2 -hybridized carbon frameworks can remarkably
modify their electronic structures and chemical activities as well as
the Fermi level of the host. This strategy is simple and efficient to
improve the properties of graphene. At the same time, the robust
framework and most of the intrinsic properties of graphene are
maintained after the doping of the heteroatoms. Chemical
vapor deposition (CVD) and the solvothermal pathway have been
adopted to produce doped graphene using liquid precursors 27,28 .
Furthermore, the synthesis of heteroatom-doped graphene from natural graphite generally needs two steps: (I) the oxidation of graphite
resulting in the formation of graphene oxide (GO); (II) post-reacting
GO with various N-, P-, or B-containing precursors (e.g. urea 29,
ammonia 30, tribenzylphosphine 31, boric acid 32, etc). Compared to
N- (or B-) doped graphenes, little attention has been paid to the
doping of S atoms into the graphene framework 33–35, although Sdoped graphene has great potential as the electrocatalyst for oxygen
reduction reaction (ORR), which is of high industrial importance in
fuel cells.

S-containing functionalities have been successfully incorporated
into the sp 2 carbon lattice by two procedures: (I) CVD technique
using liquid organics and (II) the pyrolysis of GO and S-containing
precursors. For example, Gao and co-workers reported the formation of S-doped graphene on Cu foil using liquid S-hexane mixture
vapor at 950uC 36 . However, the S content is as low as 0.6 at% and
most of sulfur atoms exist in the linear nanodomain (2, 4 nm)
other than doped S atoms. The pyrolysis of BDS and GO at 600,
1050uC leads to S-doped graphenes with 1.3–2.1 at% S atoms 33,37 .
The resulting S-doped graphene shows good electrocatalytic activity
for ORR 38 and it is also used as the support of synthesizing ultrathin
Pt nanowires demonstrating higher catalytic activities toward methanol oxidation reaction compared with commercial Pt/C 37 . Thermal
exfoliation of GO in H2S, SO2 or CS2 gas is an efficient procedure of
doping graphene lattice with S atoms 34,39, and the extent of S doping
is evidently dependent on the type of GO used than the type of S gas
atmosphere utilized during the synthesis 35 . The H2S-treated GO at
500, 900uC has the content of 1.2–1.7 at% S, which was employed
as metal-free electrocatalysts for ORR 34 . Furthermore, S- and Ndual-doped graphene materials were also prepared from GO using
BDS/thiourea/thiophene as the S source and melamine/urea/pyrimidine as the N source, respectively 40–42, or ammonium thiocyanate as
the N/S dual-containing precursors 43 . Also, the synthesis of S-doped
graphene using expensive GO (Sigma-Aldrich, product number:
763713, Price: 234 GBP/g) and toxic S-containing organics/gas in
the reduced of forms rather than the oxidized forms generally abundantly present in nature is practically exclusively done at present. At
the same time, the use of harmful S-containing (H2S, SO2 and CS2)
gas flow as the S source could result in the production of large

graphene lattice; S in its highest oxidation state of 16 in SO422 is

reduced to the lowest valence by Mg metal. It is observed that Sdoping has a great influence on the morphologies of graphene sheets.
Thus, the present novel procedure can efficiently reduce the CO2
concentration in the atmosphere by chemically fixing carbon in
CO2 to valuable doped, high-quality graphene. We also showed that
the as-formed S-doped graphene materials demonstrate high electrocatalytic activity for ORR with a dominant four-electron reaction
pathway, as well as excellent durability and MeOH crossover compared to commercial Pt/C catalyst. Thus they can be considered as
ideal candidates as metal-free ORR electrocatalysts.

Results
After the pyrolysis of the mixture of Mg powder and Na2CO3, the
product has a dark black color, suggesting the formation of a graphitic structure. Figure 2a–b show the morphologies of pure carbonbased graphene (CG) prepared by pyrolysing the physical mixture of
Mg and Na2CO3 at 800uC (CG-800), observed by scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). Low-magnification SEM image shows that CG800 has a loose, porous structure (Figure 2a). At high magnification,
CG-800 is constituted of many crumpled and wrinkled sheets with
sharp edges (Figure 2b). The morphologies of these sheets with sizes
of 100, 200 nm are similar to those of sheet-like petals forming a
flower. The yield of CG-800 is 55% calculated by the ratio of moles of
graphene to Na2CO3. This yield decreases a little to 48% when using
Na2SO4 as a sulfur source added into the physical mixture to produce
S-doped graphene (SG-800). SG-800 exhibits a similar morphology
to that of CG-800, confirmed by low-magnification SEM image
(Figure 2c). However, high-resolution SEM image indicates that
SG-800 is porous and composed of irregular sheets and particles
without any sharp edges (Figure 2d). This finding suggests that sulfate added took part in the reaction, and thus changed the morphol

Figure 2 | SEM images of CG 800 (a b) and SG 800 (c d)

ogies of the resulting S-doped graphene nanostructures. The sheetlike graphene nanostructures were also observed in those prepared
by the carbonization of glucose in molten salts 38,44 .

Further observation on the morphology difference between pure
graphene and S-doped graphene was confirmed by transmission
electron microscopy (TEM). As shown in Figure 3a (also Supplementary Figure S1), it is clear that CG-800 is composed of large,
perfect two-dimensional (2D) sheets with the crumples, implying a
2D sp 2 -hybridized nature. At the edge of the sheet, high-resolution
TEM images clearly exhibit the signature image of the few-layer
graphene with the number of lower than 10 layers (Figure 3c and
Supplementary Figure S1). In Figure 3c, the steps are formed at the
edge of a graphene sheet due to the increment of graphene layers
(from 1 to 6 layers). The morphologies of CG-800 prepared using
Na2CO3 as the carbon source are different from those of graphenes
prepared using CO2 or CaCO3 as the carbon source 16,17,45, implying
the great influences of different carbon sources on final graphene
materials. Moreover, the introduction of sulfate salt also significantly
changed the morphologies of graphene products, as shown in
Figure 3b (also Supplementary Figure S2). The resulting SG-800
demonstrates crumpled, porous structures which are distinct from
CG-800. In most areas, the hollow spherical graphene nano

Figure 3 | TEM images of CG-800 (a) and SG-800 (b), high-resolution
TEM images of CG-800 (c) and SG-800 (d, e), and EDS analysis (f) on the
circle area marked in the image (Figure 3b) of SG-800. The arrows in the
image (c) indicate the formation of the steps due to the increment of
graphene layers at the edge of graphene nanosheet

structures with more distorted morphology can be clearly observed
in SG-800 (Supplementary Figure S2). It is possible that Na2SO4 acts
as not only the S source but also the ‘salt template’ promoting the
synthesis of porous graphene materials by adjusting the growth direction of graphene layers on the surface of salt particles 46 . Highresolution TEM images exhibit the fringe-like graphene rings with
few layers in SG-800 (Figure 3d–e). The measured interlayer distances are in the range of 0.34–0.38 nm, a little larger than the dspacing of (002) crystal plane (0.335 nm) of bulk graphite due to
slight expansion and distortion 47,48 . Successful doping of S atoms into
the graphene layers prepared by magnesiothermic reduction was
confirmed by energy-dispersive spectrometry (EDS). The EDS spectrum of SG-800 indicates the presence of S (2.2 at%) as well as O
(3.6 at%) element in the graphene layers. Also, small amount of Na
and Cl elements were found, which are mainly due to the trapped Na
compounds between the graphene layers during the magnesiothermic reaction and the following acid-washing step 16 .

In accordance with EDS analysis, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) survey scans of S-doped graphenes prepared at different
temperatures imply the varied S contents of 1.8, 2.6 at% (Figure 4a
and Supplementary Table S1). The S content in SG-800 obtained by
XPS analysis is close to that obtained from the EDS result, suggesting
that S functional groups are homogenously distributed throughout
the sample. And an evident signal of Na 1s is ascribed to the trapped
Na elements within the graphene layers (Figure 4a) 16 . After the ultrasonication of SG-800 in the solvent, XPS analysis showed that the S
signals have no evident changes, implying the formation of the covalent C-S bonds in these S-doped graphenes. The S contents in present
graphene samples are evidently higher than those of S-doped graphenes (S: ca. 0.5, 0.6 at%) prepared by the pyrolysis of GO and
BDS 33 and a CVD technique using liquid organic 49, and comparable
to that of N, S-dual-doped graphene (S: 1.3, 2.0 at%) prepared by
annealing GO with BDS or H2S at high temperatures 34,42 . As shown
in Figure 4b and Supplementary Figure S3, all wide-angle X-ray
diffraction (XRD) patterns of both pure graphenes and S-doped
graphenes prepared at 700–900uC are very similar to that of typical
sp 2 -bonded carbons, exhibiting that all of them possess a crystalline
graphene structure. Indeed, two strong and broad characteristic
peaks can be observed at 26.1 and 43.3 degrees arising from the
(002) and (100) planes of graphene sheets, respectively 50 . The calculated d-spacing of (002) crystal plane is about 0.35 nm, slightly larger
than the interlayer spacing in graphite (0.335 nm). These results
match well with those from TEM analysis, implying the formation
of high-quality graphene structures in SG-800. In contrast, magnesiothermic reduction of CaCO3 at 800uC led to the production of
amorphous carbons rather than crystalline graphene 45, implying
Na2CO3 is better carbon source for the synthesis of graphene
nanostructures.

Further structural information about S-doped graphenes was
obtained from Raman spectroscopy technique through the determination of the G (related to pristine sp 2 graphitic layer) bands at
,1560 cm 21, D (related to defect in sp 2 lattice) bands at
,1350 cm 21, and 2D bands at,2725 cm 21 in the spectrum
(Figure 4c and Supplementary Figure S4). The intensity of the D to
G band (ID/IG) is used to evaluate the defect content of the graphene.
As shown in Supplementary Table S2, the reaction temperature
higher, the values of ID/IG for the resulting S-doped graphenes lower.
For example, the value of ID/IG is 0.75 for the sample prepared at
700uC, and it decreases to 0.47 for SG-800, and further to 0.41 for SG900. This implies that a higher reaction temperature is favorable for
defect repair to form graphene with more perfect layers.
Furthermore, it can be found that the ID/IG values of the resulting
graphene materials are evidently higher than those of most chemically reduced GO 51, which implies that the present magnesiothermic
reduction route is better than the chemical methods to prepare highquality graphenes with less defects Moreover the S doping of the

Figure 4 | XPS survey spectra (a) of CG-800 and SG-800, and wide-angle XRD patterns (b), Raman spectra (c), and nitrogen sorption isotherms
(d, inset: pore size distributions) of S-doped graphenes. Indium (In) 3d peaks in Figure 4a is ascribed to the In substrate supporting graphene samples for
XPS measurements.

graphene layers also can be proved by Raman data. Under the similar
synthesis conditions, the G peak (1574 cm 21 ) of CG-800 is shifted
down to 1570 cm 21 for SG-800, which is an important characteristics
of n-type doping of graphene by the substitution. The similar red
shift is also reported for N-doped graphene 49,52 . The 2D band is an
overtone of the D band, and its position is highly correlated with the
layer numbers of the graphene sheets 53 . The 2D peaks (2676–
2685 cm 21 ) for S-doped graphenes are significantly lower than
2725 cm 21 for pure graphite, showing the successful preparation of
few-layer graphene nanostructures in all samples. When increasing
reaction temperatures, the 2D position (2685 cm 21 ) for SG-700
shifts down to 2678 cm 21 for SG-800, and 2676 cm 21 for SG-900,
respectively. It indicates that SG-800 and SG-900 have similar average numbers of the graphene nanosheets, both of which are smaller
than the average numbers for SG-700.

To get insights in pore structures of the resulting graphenes prepared by magnesiothermic reduction, the N2 adsorption-desorption
isotherms at 2196uC were measured, which allow the calculation of
Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area, total pore volume, and
pore size distribution. The corresponding nitrogen adsorptiondesorption isotherms and pore size distributions for S-doped graphenes and pure graphenes are shown in Figure 4d and
Supplementary Figure S5, respectively, and the textural properties
are listed in Table 1. All isotherms exhibit a similar type IV curve with
a H3 hysteresis loop, implying that the reaction temperatures have no
evident impact on the porosity and pore microstructure of the resulting graphene materials. The calculated specific surface areas and pore
volumes of three pure graphenes are 222 239 m 2 /g and 1 887

1.936 cm 3 /g, respectively. These data slightly decrease to 188–
199 m 2 /g and 1.383–1.604 cm 3 /g, respectively, for S-doped samples
compared with those of pure graphenes. Among these S-doped graphenes, the sample prepared at 800uC demonstrates the largest specific surface area and pore volume. The specific surface areas of these
graphenes are significantly lower than the theoretical surface area of
2630 m 2 /g for individual isolated graphene sheets 54, but they are
comparable to those of N-doped thermally reduced GO 55 . The graphenes hardly adsorb nitrogen in the low relative pressure range,
implying no micropores in these samples. This fact also hints that
the resulting graphene layers are perfectly crystallized and no micropores are formed on the graphene layers during the magnesiothermic
reduction. The hysteresis loop is located in the relative pressure (P/
P0) of 0.45–1.0, which might be a result of small mesopores and
intersheet textural large pores. The pore size distribution curves of
pure graphenes and S-doped graphenes calculated by the BarrettJoyner-Halenda (BJH) model, show a single well-defined peak at
3.8 nm in all curves, implying that all graphene samples have narrow
mesopores. It is noted that a weak peak is found at about 35 nm,
possibly ascribed to the intersheet textural pores.

To further investigate the chemical environments of S and C atoms
in the graphene layers, high-resolution X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra in the C1s and S 2p regions were recorded in
Figure 5. The C 1s peak for S-doped graphene materials was observed
at,285.0 eV, which is consistent with graphene sp 2 carbon in the
samples. Furthermore, there are very minor shoulder contributions
to the XPS signals at binding energies of 286.0–288.0 eV, which are
assigned to sulfur and/or oxygen bound carbon atoms on the

Table 1 | Textural properties of pure graphene and S-doped graphenes prepared at different temperatures

Samples SBET (m 2 /g) Vtotal (cm 3 /g) Dpore (nm)

CG-700 233 1.936 3.8
CG-800 239 1.900 3.8
CG-900 222 1.887 3.8
SG-700 188 1.383 3.8
SG-800 199 1.604 3.8
SG-900 190 1.499 3.8

material surface 56 . The broad signals at 291.0–292.0 eV correspond
to the p-p* shake-up peak 57 . The XPS spectra for S 2p in S-doped
graphenes usually comprise of two parts. There are minor contributions (168.8–170.1 eV) of oxidized S species, such as sulfate and
sulfonate functional groups. Another region (164.3–165.5 eV) is corresponding to spin-orbit splitting of S atoms doped into the graphene
layers, e.g. S dominated in the graphene framework via the formation
of the sulfide bridges (-C-S-C) 58 . Thus, it can be concluded that most
of S atoms are directly doped into the carbon backbone of the materials. In terms of chemical bonding, S-doped graphenes are evidently
different from sulfuric acid treated biomass-derived carbons in
which all S atoms still have the oxidation of 16 59 . These results
suggest that S in its highest oxidation state in Na2SO4 could be
reduced to its lowest valence, which is then hybridized into the graphene layers during the magensiothermic reduction.

It has been reported that S-doped graphenes could act as metalfree electrocatalysts for ORR. In present work, it has been proved that

the in-situ reactive doping of S into the graphene framework could be
accomplished by magnesiothermic reduction of Na2CO3 in the presence of Na2SO4 as an inorganic S source. It is believed that Mg could
reduce not only CO322 to the graphitized carbons, but also S in the

reduce not only CO322 to the graphitized carbons, but also S in the

highest oxidation state of 16 in SO422 to the lowest valence which

was further hybridized into the carbon sp 2 framework. The addition
of Na2SO4 during the magnesiothermic reduction evidently not only
affects their structure and morphologies, but also improves the electrocatalytic performance of the resulting S-doped graphenes for ORR
as discussed below. The present S-doped graphenes possess an
appropriate S content, hierarchical porous textures, and highly graphitized structure. Such unique features will promote fast access of
oxygen molecules to the catalytic sites and can favor the swift diffusion of electrons in the electrode during the ORR process.

To assess the electrocatalytic properties of the resulting S-doped
graphenes, the ORR catalytic activities were evaluated using a threeelectrode electrochemical station. Figure 6a shows the cyclic voltammogram (CV) curves of a bare glassy carbon electrode (GCE) and
S-doped graphenes deposited on a GCE in N2- and O2-saturated 0.1 M
KOH aqueous electrolyte at a scan rate of 50 mV/s. It was found that
ORR on a GCE requires large over potentials (peak potential of
20.49 V vs. saturated calomel electrode (SCE)) with very low oxygen
reduction current density (20.38 mA/cm 2 ); this reduction current
was reported to be the two-electron reduction process of O2 to
peroxide which is electrochemically mediated by the oxygen-containing groups at the surface of bare GCE. The CVs for S-doped
graphenes exhibit nearly rectangular shapes, showing high conductivity with superior capacitive current. A well-defined oxygen reduction peak at,20.32 V (vs. SCE) is observed for S-doped graphenes

Figure 5 | C 1s (a) and S 2p (b SG 700; c SG 800 and d SG 900) XPS spectra of S doped graphenes

Figure 6 | Electrochemical ORR catalytic performance of samples. (a) CV curves of blank glassy carbon electrode (GCE) and S-doped graphenes
in O2-statured or N2-saturated 0.1 M KOH aqueous solution (sweep rate: 50 mV/s). (b) Comparison of CV curves of SG-800 and 40% Pt/C in O2saturated 0.1 M KOH solution upon the addition of MeOH (3 M). (c) Linear-sweep voltammograms (LSVs) of SG-800 in O2-saturated 0.1 M KOH
solution at different rotating speeds of 400, 1600 rpm (sweep rate: 5 mV/s). (d) LSVs of different samples at 1600 rpm. (e) Koutecky-Levich (K-L) plots
of SG-800 at different potentials (vs. SCE). The lines are drawn by linearly fitting the corresponding dots. (f) The electron transfer numbers (n) at SG-800
and CG-800 calculated based on the K-L equations in the potential range of 20.5, 20.6 V (vs. SCE).

in O2-saturated 0.1 M KOH solution, while there is no such a peak in
N2-saturated one, indicating that O2 is reduced on S-doped graphenes (Figure 6a). SG-800 demonstrates the highest current density
of 3.68 mA/cm 2 among three samples, indicating a pronounced electrocatalytic activity of SG-800 for ORR.

To examine the possible crossover effects, the electrocatalytic
selectivity of SG-800 and 40% Pt/C against electro-oxidation of
methanol (MeOH, a typical fuel molecule) by CVs in an O2-saturated
0.1 M KOH solution with 3 M MeOH. The cathode signals for ORR
completely disappear in the CV curves for commercial 40% Pt/C

electrode when the O2-saturated 0.1 M KOH solution was replaced
by 0.1 M KOH solution with 3 M MeOH (Figure 6b). The current
density over the potential range larger than 0 V (vs. SCE) significantly increases, corresponding to methanol electro-oxidation. In
contrast, no noticeable change except for a slight decrease in the
current density of ORR is found for SG-800 under the same conditions. These voltammograms show that S-doped graphenes have
higher selectivity for ORR with a remarkable improved ability to
avoid the cross effects than commercial Pt/C. It is mainly ascribed
to the highly graphitized nanostructures which increase both the

electronic conductivity and corrosion resistance of SG-800. Thus,
this kind of S-doped graphenes has great potentials as the electrocatalytic material in direct methanol and alkaline fuel cells.

The increased electrocatalytic activity of S-doped graphenes was
further confirmed by linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) in an O2saturated 0.1 M KOH aqueous solution at different rotating speeds
on a rotating disk electrode (RDE) (sweep rate: 5 mV/s). The voltammetric profiles show that the current density is increased with an
increase in rotating speeds (Figure 6c). The corresponding onset
potential of SG-800 for the ORR is about 20.15 V, close to that
identified from CV measurement (20.17 V). In a N2-saturated
0.1 M KOH solution, the resulting ORR current density for SG800 is neglectable (Supplementary Figure S6), indicating that O2 is
reduced on S-doped graphene electrocatalyst. The LSVs of pure graphene, S-doped graphene, and 40% Pt/C in an O2-saturated 0.1 M
KOH solution were measured at 1600 rpm (sweep rate: 5 mV/s).
The S doping into the graphene framework evidently results in the
positively shift of the onset potential from 20.18 V (vs. SCE) for pure
graphene to 20.15 V (vs. SCE) for S-doped graphene. It implies the
important role of S atoms doped into the graphene layers in adjusting
chemical/electronic properties of graphene, thus improving the ORR
catalytic performance of S-doped graphene. All S-doped graphene
samples show the onset potentials are just negatively shifted by
0.12 V (vs. SCE) related to that (20.04 V vs. SCE) for commercial
Pt/C (Supplementary Figure S7). This value is evidently compared to
other recently reported metal-free carbon-based electrocatalysts (e. g.
N-doped graphene 29,60, N-doped mesoporous carbon 61, P-doped
ordered mesoporous carbon 62, N, S-dual-doped graphene 63, etc) for
ORR (Supplementary Table S3). Notably, the ORR current densities
for all S-doped graphenes at 20.8 V (vs. SCE) are significantly higher
than those for all pure graphenes, strongly indicating that S atoms
have been doped into the layers of graphene sheets, and have similar
impact to nitrogen atoms doped into the graphene layers on the
electronic structure of doped graphenes. Among these graphene
samples, SG-800 demonstrates the largest ORR current density
(3.3 mA/cm 2 ) at 20.32 V (the peak potential vs. SCE), which are
evidently superior or compared to heteroatom-doped porous carbon-based electrocatalysts for ORR (Supplementary Table S3). The
high ORR activity of SG-800 is ascribed to the appropriate amount of
S atoms, highly graphitized carbon structures, and hierarchical porous textures. This unique structure also provides large number of
proper channels for easy mass diffusion of electrolyte ions, oxygen
molecules, and products.

By using the Koutecky-Levich (K-L) equation, we further analyzed
the RDE data collected by LSVs. As shown in Figure 6e, the K-L plots
of SG-800 in the potential range of 20.5, 20.6 V (vs. SCE) exhibit
good linearity, the slopes of which are approximately constant. It also
indicates the first-order reaction kinetics with respect to the concentration of O2 dissolved. The exact electron transfer numbers of Sdoped graphene and CG-800 were calculated according to the slopes
of the linear fitted K-L plots on the base of the K-L equations as
following 64,

- �{1

J {1 ~Jk {1 z Bv 1=2

B~0:2 nFDo2

2=3v{1=6Co2

where J and Jk are the measured current density and kinetic-limiting
current density, respectively, n is the electron transfer number, F is
the Faraday constant (96485 F/g), v is the viscosity of the electrolyte
(0.01 cm 2 /S), CO2 is the concentration of O2 (1.2 - 10 26 mol/cm 3 ),
and DO2 is the diffusion coefficient (1.9 * 10 25 cm 2 /s). The coefficient
0.2 is adopted when the rotating speed is expressed in rpm. As displayed in Figure 6f, the number of electrons transferred per O2
molecules (n 5 3.1, 3.8) in ORR is higher than two in the potential
range of 20.5 V to 20.6 V, and SG-800 has the highest electron
transfer numbers (3 7 3 8) possibly because of its highest surface

area and pore volume and appropriate S content. This result indicates that the desirable four-electron reduction process for SG-800 to
form water as the main product other than peroxide is predominant.
In contrast, CG-800 has n value of ca. 2.2, which suggests that the
two-electron reduction process with peroxide as the main product is
dominant. Note that four-electron process is very important for ORR
in fuel cells, because peroxides can poison the cell. This finding
matches well with previous reports indicating that pure reduced
GO can cause a two-electron pathway 40 . These results highlight the
key role of doped sulfur atoms acting as active sites for promoting the
four-electron process in ORR 33 .

Another major concern is the stability of the S-doped graphene
used as high-performance electrocatalyst for ORR. Accordingly, the
continuous potential cycling to investigate the stability of SG-800
was performed. As shown in Figure 7a, Both the CV shape and
current density have no any evident change after 4000 continuous
cycles in the potential range of 0.2, 21 V (vs. SCE) in O2-saturated
0.1 M KOH solution at a scan rate of 200 mV/s, implying the excellent capacitance stability of SG-800. Moreover, we also conducted a
3.5 h stability test for SG-800 and 40% Pt/C toward ORR using the i-t
chronoamperometric response at a constant voltage of 20.4 V (vs.
SCE) in a O2-saturated 0.1 M KOH solution at a rotating speed of
1600 rpm. As shown in Figure 7b, the current densities of both SG

Figure 7 | (a) CV curves of SG-800 electrode in O2-saturated 0.1 M KOH
solution before and after a continuous potentiodynamic sweep for 4000
cycles with a scan rate of 200 mV/s. (b) Current-time (i-t)
chronoamperometric response of SG-800 and commercial 40% Pt/C
electrodes at -0.4 V (vs. SCE) in O2-saturated 0.1 M KOH solution at a
rotating speed of 1600 rpm

800 and 40% Pt/C decrease with time, but SG-800 retains 89% of the
initial catalytic current after 3.5 h. However, a relative current of only
70% is maintained for commercial Pt/C under the same testing conditions. These data suggest that SG-800 possesses the better duration
stability than Pt/C for ORR in an alkaline electrolyte. Combined with
high selectivity for ORR and good ability to avoid crossover effects, it
is believed that S-doped graphenes prepared by magnesiothermic
reduction using Na2SO4 as the S source is compared to commercial
Pt/C for ORR.

Discussion
In summary, this work has shown an efficient strategy to chemically
fix carbon to form valuable, high-quality, doped graphenes, which
also can efficiently reduce the emission of CO2 into the atmosphere.
By magnesiothermic reduction of Na2CO3 and Na2SO4 as low-cost,
nontoxic carbon and sulfur sources, respectively, S-doped graphenes
with few layers have been successfully prepared. The melting Mg can
reduce carbon in the oxidation state of 14 in carbonate to form black
graphene products. And sulfur in sulfate also can be reduced from its
highest oxidation state to lowest valence and hybridized into the
carbon sp 2 framework. The resulting graphenes possess crumpled,
sheet-like nanostructures with hierarchically porous textures and the
addition of sulfate during the magnesiothermic reaction results in the
formation of S-doped graphenes with more distorted nanostructures.
The sulfur doping of the graphene framework evidently decreases the
ORR onset potentials and increases limited current densities compared with pure graphenes. The resulting S-doped graphenes demonstrate not only high electrocatalytic activity for ORR with a
four-electron reaction pathway, but also much better stability and
increased tolerance to MeOH crossover effects than commercial
Pt/C. The high activity for ORR of S-doped graphenes is mainly
ascribed to highly graphitized structures, S-related active sites, and
hierarchically porous textures. The present magnesiothermic reduction procedure is being investigated in the preparation of other heteroatom-doped (e.g. P and B) graphene materials potentially utilized
in the fields of electrocatalysis, batteries, supercapacitors, biosensors,
etc.

Methods
Synthesis of S-doped graphene. Anhydrous Na2CO3 and Na2SO4 were used as the C
and S sources, respectively, and magnesium (Mg) powder were utilized as the
reducing reagent. A calculated amount of these powders were mixed together and
then put onto an alumina boat which was inserted into a stainless steel tube. The
reaction temperature was controlled to be 700, 800, or 900uC for 1 h at a ramp of 5uC/
min under argon (Ar) atmosphere. After cooling to room temperature, the resulting
black solids were dispersed in sufficient 10% HCl solution and vigorously stirred for
4 h to remove any inorganic impurities. The carbon was collected by filtration and
purified by distilled water and ethanol for three times each. Finally, the filtered
product was dried at 80uC overnight and further annealed in Ar atmosphere. And the
resulting S-doped graphene was denoted as SG-X, where SG is the abbreviation of Sdoped graphene and X stands for the magnesiothermic reaction temperature in uC.
For comparison, pure carbon-based graphene (CG) samples were synthesized by
magnesiothermic reduction of Na2CO3 without any Na2SO4.

Structural characterization. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of the
graphene were recorded using a JEOL 2010F electron microscope equipped with an
energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) attachment operating at 200 kV. Samples for
analysis were deposited on a thin amorphous porous carbon film supported by copper
grid from ultrasonically processed ethanol solutions. The morphology of the
graphene was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) using a field emission
microscope (S-4800, Hitachi). Samples were mounted using a conductive carbon
double-sided sticky tape. Raman spectra were recorded on a DXR Raman Microscope
(Thermal Scientific Co., USA) with 532 nm excitation length. X-ray powder
diffraction (XRD) measurements were carried out on a Rigaku D/MAX-2250 V
diffractometer with Cu Ka radiation. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was
recorded with an ESCALAB 250 X-ray photoelectron spectrometer with Al Ka (hu 5
1486.6 eV) radiation. The graphene powders were glued onto indium (In) metal
particles by pressing for measurements. All spectra were calibrated using 285.0 eV as
the line position of adventitious carbon. Nitrogen sorption isotherms were measured
using a Micromeritics ASAP 2010 surface area and pore size analyzer at liquid
nitrogen temperature (2196uC). Prior to measurement, the hierarchically porous
materials were dehydrated under vacuum at 200uC overnight The specific surface

areas were calculated by the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method. The total pore
volume was calculated from the amount of nitrogen adsorbed at a relative pressure of
0.99. The pore size distribution curves were calculated from the analysis of the
desorption branch of the isotherm using the Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) model.

Electrode preparation and electrochemical measurements. The graphene sample
(5 mg) was dispersed in the mixture of 0.5 mL water and 0.5 mL ethanol under
ultrasonic irradiation for ca. 2 h. Then 5% Nafion solution (25 mL) was added into the
above suspension, and the further ultrasonic treatment was performed until a
homogeneous ink was formed. 20 mL ink containing 62.5 mg catalyst was transferred
onto the glassy rotating disk electrode with 5 mm diameter, yielding a catalyst level of
0.32 mg/cm 2 . For 40% Pt/C commercial catalyst (JM company), 31.2 mg catalyst was
deposited on the glassy rotating disk electrode. The electrode with the catalyst was
dried at 50uC which was used as the working electrode for further electrochemical
measurements. Electrochemical activity of the working electrode was studied by
cyclic voltammetry (CV) and rotating disk electrode (RDE) using a standard threeelectrode cell with a Pt plate as the counter electrode and a saturated calomel electrode
(SCE) as the reference electrode. An aqueous solution of 0.1 M KOH was used as the
electrolyte for the electrochemical studies. The electrochemical cell was controlled by
a bipotentiostat (Pine Instrument Co.) equipped with a RDE. Prior to the
measurements, the electrolyte was saturated by bubbling O2 or N2 for 15 min. The
working electrode was cycled at least thirty times before the CV data were recorded at
a scan rate of 50 mV/s. The RDE measurements were performed at different rotating
rates varying from 400 to 2025 rpm with the scan rate of 5 mV/s.

1. Belloni, A., Ahner, C. & Ha¨ring, H.-W. Industrial gases processing. (John Wiley &
Sons, 2008).
2. Kim, J., Lin, L.-C., Swisher, J. A., Haranczyk, M. & Smit, B. Predicting large CO2
adsorption in aluminosilicate zeolites for postcombustion carbon dioxide capture.
J. Am. Chem. Soc. 134, 18940–18943 (2012).
3. Monazam, E. R. et al. Equilibrium and kinetics analysis of carbon dioxide capture
using immobilized amine on a mesoporous silica. AIChE J. 59, 923–935 (2013).
4. Wang, J. et al. Highly porous nitrogen-doped polyimine-based carbons with
adjustable microstructures for CO2 capture. J. Mater. Chem. A 1, 10951–10961
(2013).
5. Wang, J. C. et al. Fungi-based porous carbons for CO2 adsorption and separation.
J. Mater. Chem. 22, 13911–13913 (2012).
6. Wang, J. & Liu, Q. An efficient one-step condensation and activation strategy to
synthesize porous carbons with optimal micropore sizes for highly selective CO2
adsorption. Nanoscale 6, 4148–4156 (2014).
7. Sumida, K. et al. Carbon dioxide capture in metal-organic frameworks. Chem.
Rev. 112, 724–781 (2011).
8. Wang, Q., Luo, J., Zhong, Z. & Borgna, A. CO2 capture by solid adsorbents and
their applications: Current status and new trends. Energy Environ. Sci. 4, 42–55
(2011).
9. Chatelet, B. et al. Azaphosphatranes as structurally tunable organocatalysts for
carbonate synthesis from CO2 and epoxides. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135, 5348–5351
(2013).
10. Kimura, T., Kamata, K. & Mizuno, N. A bifunctional tungstate catalyst for
chemical fixation of CO2 at atmospheric pressure. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 51,
6700–6703 (2012).
11. Scha¨fer, A., Saak, W., Haase, D. & Mu¨ller, T. Silyl cation mediated conversion of
CO2 into benzoic acid, formic acid, and methanol. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 51,
2981–2984 (2012).
12. Choudhury, J. New strategies for CO2-to-methanol conversion. Chem Cat Chem
4, 609–611 (2012).
13. Dobrovetsky, R. & Stephan, D. W. Catalytic reduction of CO2 to CO by using zinc
(ii) and in situ generated carbodiphosphoranes. Angew. Chem. 125, 2576–2579
(2013).
14. Lou, Z., Chen, Q., Zhang, Y., Wang, W. & Qian, Y. Diamond formation by
reduction of carbon dioxide at low temperatures. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125,
9302–9303 (2003).
15. Aresta, M., Dibenedetto, A. & Angelini, A. Catalysis for the valorization of exhaust
carbon: From CO2 to chemicals, materials, and fuels. Technological use of CO2.
Chem. Rev. 114, 1709–1742 (2013).
16. Chakrabarti, A. et al. Conversion of carbon dioxide to few-layer graphene.
J. Mater. Chem. 21, 9491–9493 (2011).
17. Wei, W., Sun, K. & Hu, Y. H. Synthesis of 3D cauliflower-fungus-like graphene
from CO2 as a highly efficient counter electrode material for dye-sensitized solar
cells. J. Mater. Chem. A 2, 16842–16846 (2014).
18. Wang, H., Sun, K., Tao, F., Stacchiola, D. J. & Hu, Y. H. 3D honeycomb-like
structured graphene and its high efficiency as a counter-electrode catalyst for dyesensitized solar cells. Angew. Chem. 125, 9380–9384 (2013).
19. Novoselov, K. S. et al. Electric field effect in atomically thin carbon films. Science
306, 666–669 (2004).
20. Li, X. et al. Transfer of large-area graphene films for high-performance
transparent conductive electrodes. Nano Lett. 9, 4359–4363 (2009).
21. Shang, L. et al. Graphene-supported ultrafine metal nanoparticles encapsulated by
mesoporous silica: Robust catalysts for oxidation and reduction reactions. Angew.
Chem 126 254 258 (2014)

22. Lv, H., Chen, A., Sun, X., Tang, J. & Li, C. Synthesis of graphene/Ni/TiO2/CNTs
composites and photocatalytic activities. J. Inorg. Mater. 29, 1061–1066 (2014).
23. Lee, C., Wei, X., Kysar, J. W. & Hone, J. Measurement of the elastic properties and
intrinsic strength of monolayer graphene. Science (Washington, DC, U. S.) 321,
385–388 (2008).
24. Balandin, A. A. et al. Superior thermal conductivity of single-layer graphene. Nano
Lett. 8, 902–907 (2008).
25. Kuang, D. & Hu, W. Research progress of graphene composites. J. Inorg. Mater.
28, 235–246 (2013).
26. Chen, F. et al. Preparation and electrochemical performance of activation
graphene/sulfur complex cathod materials for lithium-sulfur batteries. J. Inorg.
Mater. 29, 627–632 (2014).
27. Reddy, A. L. M. et al. Synthesis of nitrogen-doped graphene films for lithium
battery application. ACS Nano 4, 6337–6342 (2010).
28. Liu, Z. W. et al. Phosphorus-doped graphite layers with high electrocatalytic
activity for the O2 reduction in an alkaline medium. Angew. Chem. 123,
3315–3319 (2011).
29. Lin, Z., Waller, G., Liu, Y., Liu, M. & Wong, C. P. Facile synthesis of nitrogendoped graphene via pyrolysis of graphene oxide and urea, and its electrocatalytic
activity toward the oxygen-reduction reaction. Adv. Energy Mater. 2, 884–888
(2012).
30. Wang, X. et al. N-doping of graphene through electrothermal reactions with
ammonia. Science 324, 768–771 (2009).
31. Zhang, C., Mahmood, N., Yin, H., Liu, F. & Hou, Y. Synthesis of phosphorusdoped graphene and its multifunctional applications for oxygen reduction
reaction and lithium ion batteries. Adv. Mater. 25, 4932–4937 (2013).
32. Zheng, Y., Jiao, Y., Ge, L., Jaroniec, M. & Qiao, S. Z. Two-step boron and nitrogen
doping in graphene for enhanced synergistic catalysis. Angew. Chem. 125,
3192–3198 (2013).
33. Yang, Z. et al. Sulfur-doped graphene as an efficient metal-free cathode catalyst for
oxygen reduction. ACS Nano 6, 205–211 (2011).
34. Yang, S. et al. Efficient synthesis of heteroatom (N or S)-doped graphene based on
ultrathin graphene oxide-porous silica sheets for oxygen reduction reactions. Adv.
Funct. Mater. 22, 3634–3640 (2012).
35. Poh, H. L., S ˇ imek, P., Sofer, Z. K. & Pumera, M. Sulfur-doped graphene via
thermal exfoliation of graphite oxide in H2S, SO2, or CS2 gas. ACS Nano 7,
5262–5272 (2013).
36. Gao, H. et al. Synthesis of S-doped graphene by liquid precursor. Nanotechnology
23, 275605 (2012).
37. Wang, R. et al. Controlled growth of platinum nanowire arrays on sulfur doped
graphene as high performance electrocatalyst. Sci. Rep. 3, 2431 (2013).
38. Liu, X., Giordano, C. & Antonietti, M. A facile molten-salt route to graphene
synthesis. Small 10, 193–200 (2014).
39. Park, J.-E. et al. Sulfur-doped graphene as a potential alternative metal-free
electrocatalyst and pt-catalyst supporting material for oxygen reduction reaction.
Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 16, 103–109 (2014).
40. Xu, J., Dong, G., Jin, C., Huang, M. & Guan, L. Sulfur and nitrogen co-doped, fewlayered graphene oxide as a highly efficient electrocatalyst for the oxygenreduction reaction. Chem Sus Chem 6, 493–499 (2013).
41. Qu, D. et al. Highly luminescent S, N co-doped graphene quantum dots with
broad visible absorption bands for visible light photocatalysts. Nanoscale 5,
12272–12277 (2013).
42. Liang, J., Jiao, Y., Jaroniec, M. & Qiao, S. Z. Sulfur and nitrogen dual-doped
mesoporous graphene electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction with synergistically
enhanced performance. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 51, 11496–11500 (2012).
43. Su, Y. et al. Low-temperature synthesis of nitrogen/sulfur co-doped threedimensional graphene frameworks as efficient metal-free electrocatalyst for
oxygen reduction reaction. Carbon 62, 296–301 (2013).
44. Liu, X. & Antonietti, M. Moderating black powder chemistry for the synthesis of
doped and highly porous graphene nanoplatelets and their use in electrocatalysis.
Adv. Mater. 25, 6284–6290 (2013).
45. Zhao, J. et al. An approach for synthesizing graphene with calcium carbonate and
magnesium. Carbon 50, 4939–4944 (2012).
46. Fechler, N., Fellinger, T. P. & Antonietti, M. ‘‘Salt templating’’: A simple and
sustainable pathway toward highly porous functional carbons from ionic liquids.
Adv. Mater. 25, 75–79 (2013).
47. Pierson, H. O. Handbook of carbon, graphite, diamonds and fullerenes: Processing,
properties and applications. (William Andrew, 1994).
48. Wang, J., Senkovska, I., Kaskel, S. & Liu, Q. Chemically activated fungi-based
porous carbons for hydrogen storage. Carbon 75, 372–380 (2014).
49. Chang, D. W. et al. Nitrogen-doped graphene nanoplatelets from simple solution
edge-functionalization for n-type field-effect transistors. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135,
8981–8988 (2013).

50. Lee, S. H. et al. Three-dimensional self-assembly of graphene oxide platelets into
mechanically flexible macroporous carbon films. Angew. Chem. 122,
10282–10286 (2010).
51. Shin, H. J. et al. Efficient reduction of graphite oxide by sodium borohydride and
its effect on electrical conductance. Adv. Funct. Mater. 19, 1987–1992 (2009).
52. Li, X. et al. Simultaneous nitrogen doping and reduction of graphene oxide. J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 131, 15939–15944 (2009).
53. Calizo, I., Balandin, A., Bao, W., Miao, F. & Lau, C. Temperature dependence of
the Raman spectra of graphene and graphene multilayers. Nano Lett. 7,
2645–2649 (2007).
54. Stoller, M. D., Park, S., Zhu, Y., An, J. & Ruoff, R. S. Graphene-based
ultracapacitors. Nano Lett. 8, 3498–3502 (2008).
55. Sheng, Z.-H. et al. Catalyst-free synthesis of nitrogen-doped graphene via thermal
annealing graphite oxide with melamine and its excellent electrocatalysis. ACS
Nano 5, 4350–4358 (2011).
56. Marton, D., Boyd, K. J., Albayati, A. H., Todorov, S. S. & Rabalais, J. W. Carbon
nitride deposited using energetic species: a two-phase system. Phys. Rev. Lett. 73,
118–121 (1994).
57. Darmstadt, H., Roy, C., Kaliaguine, S., Choi, S. J. & Ryoo, R. Surface chemistry of
ordered mesoporous carbons. Carbon 40, 2673–2683 (2002).
58. Malik, D. J., Trochimczuk, A. W., Jyo, A. & Tylus, W. Synthesis and
characterization of nanostructured carbons with controlled porosity prepared
from sulfonated divinylbiphenyl copolymers. Carbon 46, 310–319 (2008).
59. Suganuma, S. et al. Hydrolysis of cellulose by amorphous carbon bearing SO3H,
COOH, and OH groups. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130, 12787–12793 (2008).
60. Koka´Poh, C. Exploration of the active center structure of nitrogen-doped
graphene-based catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction. Energy Environ. Sci. 5,
7936–7942 (2012).
61. Liu, R., Wu, D., Feng, X. & Mu¨llen, K. Nitrogen-doped ordered mesoporous
graphitic arrays with high electrocatalytic activity for oxygen reduction. Angew.
Chem. 122, 2619–2623 (2010).
62. Yang, D.-S., Bhattacharjya, D., Inamdar, S., Park, J. & Yu, J.-S. Phosphorus-doped
ordered mesoporous carbons with different lengths as efficient metal-free
electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline media. J. Am. Chem. Soc.
134, 16127–16130 (2012).
63. Wohlgemuth, S.-A., White, R. J., Willinger, M.-G., Titirici, M.-M. & Antonietti,
M. A one-pot hydrothermal synthesis of sulfur and nitrogen doped carbon
aerogels with enhanced electrocatalytic activity in the oxygen reduction reaction.
Green Chem. 14, 1515–1523 (2012).
64. Paulus, U. et al. Oxygen reduction on carbon-supported Pt-Ni and Pt-Co alloy
catalysts. J. Phys. Chem. B 106, 4181–4191 (2002).

Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, the One Hundred Talent Plan of
Chinese Academy of Sciences, National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
21307145), the Youth Science and Technology Talents ‘‘Sail’’ Program of Shanghai
Municipal Science and Technology Commission (NO. 15YF1413800), and the Research
Grant (No. 14DZ2261200) from Shanghai Government for the Financial Support.

Author contributions

J.W. performed the experiments, and wrote the manuscript; R.M., Z.Z. and G.L. analyzed
the data; Q.L. designed the experiments; all authors reviewed the manuscript.

Additional information
[Supplementary information accompanies this paper at http://www.nature.com/](http://www.nature.com/scientificreports)
[scientificreports](http://www.nature.com/scientificreports)

Competing financial interests: The authors declare no competing financial interests.

How to cite this article: Wang, J., Ma, R., Zhou, Z., Liu, G. & Liu, Q. Magnesiothermic
synthesis of sulfur-doped graphene as an efficient metal-free electrocatalyst for oxygen
reduction. Sci. Rep. 5, 9304; DOI:10.1038/srep09304 (2015).

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the
article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if
the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need
to obtain permissionfrom the licenseholderin order toreproduce the material. To
[view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

본문 출처 PDF: PDF 보기 · 다른 PDF는 위 [PDF 업로드]로 올릴 수 있습니다.

활용가능성

이력 0건

아직 편집 이력이 없습니다. 저장할 때마다 이전 내용이 여기에 백업됩니다.